Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong, Tools of the mind, 1996 [ ]
p.43
Bruner studied scaffolding primarily in the area of language acquisition. He points out that when young children are learning language, parents present the child with mature speech. Not all sentences are reduced to baby talk. However, parents vary the amount of contextual support they give. They restate, repeat the important words that have meaning, use gestures, and respond to the child's utterances by focusing on the meaning of the child's utterances and not the grammatical form. Adults maintain a dialogue with the child as if the child is another adult who understands everything. Parents act as if the child can understand, thus responding to the ZPD and not to the child's actual level of speech production. This is what Garvey called talking with “the future child” (Garvey, 1986, p. 331). Say that a child points to a tiger at the zoo and says, “Rrrr,” and the parent responds by saying, “Yes, that's a tiger. See her babies? She has three babies.” The parent responds as if the child has produced the sentence “Look at the tiger.” After repeated exposure to more mature language forms within the ZPD, children begin to acquire grammar. Bruner gave this support a specific name, the Language Acquisition Support System, or LASS.
(Bodrova, Elena, Tools of the mind : the Vygotskian approach to early childhood education / Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong. -- 1st ed., 1. early childhood education--philosophy., 2. child development., 3. constructivism (education)., 4. learning, psychology of., 5. play., 6. early childhood education--activity programs., 7. vygotskii, L. S. (Lev Semenovich), 1896-1934., 1996, p.43 )
<---------------------------------------------------------------------------->
Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong, Tools of the mind, 1996 [ ]
p.97
Speech is then employed for purpose other than communication.
pp.97-98
After studying children using speech to solve problems, Vygotsky and Luria (1984/1994) drew this conclusion:
1. A child's speech is an inalienable and internally necessary part of the operation [of problem solving], its role being important as that of action in the attaining of a goal. The experimenter's impression is that the child not only speaks about what he is doing, but that for him speech and action are in this case one and the same complex psychological function [italic] directed toward the solution of the given problem.
2. The more complex the action demanded by the situation and the less directed its solution, the greater the importance played by speech in the operation as a whole. Sometimes speech becomes of such vital importance that without it the child proves to be positively unable to accomplish the given task. (p. 109)
To put this into simpler language, children become capable of thinking as they talk. The child can think aloud.
p.98
Have you ever found yourself understanding your own thinking better when you talk it out with someone else? We may even say, “Can I talk to you about this so I can clarify what I think?”
p.98
Thinking while talking makes shared activity doubly powerful. When children talk to each other as they work, their language supports learning, but the verbal interaction also helps each child to think while talking.
p.98
Private speech is audible but directed to the self rather than to other people. It contains information as well as self-regulatory comments. It is the kind of thing that grown-ups do when faced with a difficult multistep task.
p.98
Private speech is often abbreviated and condensed, unlike public speech, which communicates with others. Private speech sounds egocentric, as if the child doesn't care if she is understood by anyone else. Vygotsky points out that this egocentrism is not a deficiency of speech but an indicator of another function of speech at this age. It is not necessary for private speech to be completely explicit since it must only be intelligible to the child. The child has an intuitive sense of internal audience.
(Bodrova, Elena, Tools of the mind : the Vygotskian approach to early childhood education / Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong. -- 1st ed., 1. early childhood education--philosophy., 2. child development., 3. constructivism (education)., 4. learning, psychology of., 5. play., 6. early childhood education--activity programs., 7. vygotskii, L. S. (Lev Semenovich), 1896-1934., 1996, )
<---------------------------------------------------------------------------->
Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong, Tools of the mind, 1996 [ ]
p.44
Children do not need full knowledge or full understanding of the task before we teach it to them. Competence and understanding are acquired after the task has been performed a number of times.
p.45
Four Stages of the ZPD
Tharp and Gallimore (1988) directed the Kamehameha Elementary Education Program (KEEP) in Hawaii and worked with elementary aged children. They have proposed a four-stage description of the ZPD that goes beyond the definition commonly used by most researchers in the Vygotskian framework. The most distinctive aspect of their approach is the concept of performance in the ZPD as a circular, recursive process, rather than a linear one, with the following stages:
Stage 1. Performance is assisted by more capable others.
Stage 2. Performance is assisted by self.
Stage 3. Performance is developed, automatized, and “fossilized”.
Stage 4. De-automatization of performance leads to recursion back through the ZPD. (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988, p. 35)
p.45
At this stage the most helpful types of interactions are modeling, contingent management (setting a pattern of rewards), feeding back (letting children know how close their behavior is to the target), instructing (giving direct instructions about strategies), questioning (asking leading questions), and cognitive structuring (providing explanatory and belief structures that organize and give meaning).
p.52
..., 6-month-old Lisa gestures toward her teddy bear, and her sister says, “Oh, you want your bear. I'll get it for you.” For infants, objects become interesting through the mediation of others. By modeling how to interact with objects and interacting with the child over the object, we provide the assistance which enables the child to acquire object manipulation. Object manipulation exists in a shared experience first, as do all other mental processes, and it is an outcome of the child's emotional dialogue with her caregiver.
p.52
Shared activity becomes a vital part of the infant's life.
(Bodrova, Elena, Tools of the mind : the Vygotskian approach to early childhood education / Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong. -- 1st ed., 1. early childhood education--philosophy., 2. child development., 3. constructivism (education)., 4. learning, psychology of., 5. play., 6. early childhood education--activity programs., 7. vygotskii, L. S. (Lev Semenovich), 1896-1934., 1996, )
<---------------------------------------------------------------------------->
Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong, Tools of the mind, 1996 [ ]
p.44
Cazden (1981) terms “performance comes before competence”
p.44
Children do not need full knowledge or full understanding of the task before we teach it to them. Competence and understanding are acquired after the task has been performed a number of times.
p.45
Four Stages of the ZPD
Tharp and Gallimore (1988) directed the Kamehameha Elementary Education Program (KEEP) in Hawaii and worked with elementary aged children. They have proposed a four-stage description of the ZPD that goes beyond the definition commonly used by most researchers in the Vygotskian framework. The most distinctive aspect of their approach is the concept of performance in the ZPD as a circular, recursive process, rather than a linear one, with the following stages:
Stage 1. Performance is assisted by more capable others.
Stage 2. Performance is assisted by self.
Stage 3. Performance is developed, automatized, and “fossilized”.
Stage 4. De-automatization of performance leads to recursion back through the ZPD. (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988, p. 35)
p.45
At this stage the most helpful types of interactions are modeling, contingent management (setting a pattern of rewards), feeding back (letting children know how close their behavior is to the target), instructing (giving direct instructions about strategies), questioning (asking leading questions), and cognitive structuring (providing explanatory and belief structures that organize and give meaning).
(Bodrova, Elena, Tools of the mind : the Vygotskian approach to early childhood education / Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong. -- 1st ed., 1. early childhood education--philosophy., 2. child development., 3. constructivism (education)., 4. learning, psychology of., 5. play., 6. early childhood education--activity programs., 7. vygotskii, L. S. (Lev Semenovich), 1896-1934., 1996, )
<-------------------------------------------------------------------------->
Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong, Tools of the mind, 1996 [ ]
pp.42-43
Reduce or simplify the number of steps required to solve the problem so the child can manage them, maintain the child's interest in pursuing the goal, pointing out the critical features that show the difference between the child's performance and the ideal performance, control frustration, and demonstrate the idealized version of what the child is doing. (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976, p. 60)
p.42
Scaffolding
Wood, Bruner, & Ross (1976)
At the level of maximum scaffolding, the teacher counts out loud with the child, holding the child's finger as she points to each object. At this point, the teacher has most of the responsibility for counting, while the child follows his action. The teacher then gradually begins to withdraw support, just as the scaffolding of a building is taken away as the walls are capable of standing alone. The next time the child counts, the teacher does not say the numbers but still helps her point. Then the teacher may stop pointing at the objects, allowing the child to both point and count on her own.
p.42
Wood, Bruner, & Ross (1976) suggest that what the expert does when providing scaffolding may vary. Sometimes the adult might direct attention to an aspect that was forgotten; at other times the adult may actually model the correct manner of doing something.
p.43
Bruner studied scaffolding primarily in the area of language acquisition. He points out that when young children are learning language, parents present the child with mature speech. Not all sentences are reduced to baby talk. However, parents vary the amount of contextual support they give. They restate, repeat the important words that have meaning, use gestures, and respond to the child's utterances by focusing on the meaning of the child's utterances and not the grammatical form. Adults maintain a dialogue with the child as if the child is another adult who understands everything. Parents act as if the child can understand, thus responding to the ZPD and not to the child's actual level of speech production. This is what Garvey called talking with “the future child” (Garvey, 1986, p. 331). Say that a child points to a tiger at the zoo and says, “Rrrr,” and the parent responds by saying, “Yes, that's a tiger. See her babies? She has three babies.” The parent responds as if the child has produced the sentence “Look at the tiger.” After repeated exposure to more mature language forms within the ZPD, children begin to acquire grammar. Bruner gave this support a specific name, the Language Acquisition Support System, or LASS.
p.75
In 1st and 2nd grade, teachers typically give many directions to children orally without mediational support to help them remember what to do. Ms. Margolis expects her children to remember that there are three centers that they must visit during center learning time. Many of the children have no trouble remembering, but Ida, Joseph, and Dionnia never get past the first center. No matter what Ms. Margolis does, these three children go through parts of the first center and then become wanderers around the room. Ms. Margolis decides to give them an external mediator in the form of a ticket with the number 1, 2, and 3 written on it. After she sends the other children to the centers, she sits down with her wandering threesome and has them write down in their own way something that will remind them of the centers they are supposed to go to. Ida scribbles after each number, Joseph writes letters, and Dionnia draws a picture. Ms. Margolis pins the notes to their clothes with a clothespin. “When you have finished at the center,” she tells them, “check it off on your ticket. Then the ticket will help you remember where to go next.” By the end of the first week, only Ida and Dionnia need to use the tickets. By the end of the third week, all three children have begun to remember the routine.
As with perception and attention, Vygotskians propose using external mediators to provide scaffolding for the development of deliberate memory.
p.76
External mediators are also advantageous because they can be used in situations when the teacher is not present. They remind the child before it is too late. So much of the time, we remind children after the fact about what they should have remembered because we are not present to remind them beforehand.
p.96
Thus, Eskimos people have many words for snow, Guatemalan Indians who are weavers have many words for textures of yarn, and Asian cultures have many words to define familial relationships and kinships. Language reflects the importance of certain elements of the physical and social environment.
p.96
Language allows the acquisition of new information: content, skills, strategies, and processes. While not all learning involve language, complex ideas and processes can only be appropriated with the help of language. The idea of number is only internalized with the help of language. Through language, strategies for solving conflicts are also taught.
p.96
Since language is a universal cultural tool, delays in its development have severe consequences.
(Bodrova, Elena, Tools of the mind : the Vygotskian approach to early childhood education / Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong. -- 1st ed., 1. early childhood education--philosophy., 2. child development., 3. constructivism (education)., 4. learning, psychology of., 5. play., 6. early childhood education--activity programs., 7. vygotskii, L. S. (Lev Semenovich), 1896-1934., 1996, )
<-------------------------------------------------------------------------->
Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong, Tools of the mind, 1996 [ ]
p.96
Thus, Eskimos people have many words for snow, Guatemalan Indians who are weavers have many words for textures of yarn, and Asian cultures have many words to define familial relationships and kinships. Language reflects the importance of certain elements of the physical and social environment.
p.96
Language allows the acquisition of new information: content, skills, strategies, and processes. While not all learning involve language, complex ideas and processes can only be appropriated with the help of language. The idea of number is only internalized with the help of language. Through language, strategies for solving conflicts are also taught.
p.96
Since language is a universal cultural tool, delays in its development have severe consequences.
p.96
language as social
Interpreting language as social is a view that is different from that of Piaget (1923/1926), who believed that speech reflects the child's present level of mental processing and is based on the child's schemas and internal representations.
schema an outline, diagram, scheme, plan, or preliminary draft
scheme a) a carefully arranged and systematic program of action for attaining some object or end
b) a secret or underhanded plan; plot
c) a visionary plan or project
3. an outline or diagram showing different parts or elements of an object or system
(Bodrova, Elena, Tools of the mind : the Vygotskian approach to early childhood education / Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong. -- 1st ed., 1. early childhood education--philosophy., 2. child development., 3. constructivism (education)., 4. learning, psychology of., 5. play., 6. early childhood education--activity programs., 7. vygotskii, L. S. (Lev Semenovich), 1896-1934., 1996, )
“Language is not neutral. Every word is defined in the brain through frame-circuits. Moreover the frame-circuits are not simply logical. They are connected to emotions, governing our gut intuitions about ... issues and limiting how issues──and even facts──can be understood. And they come with powerful images. This is how reason really works: through framing, metaphors, emotion, narratives, and imagery.”, p.15, George Lakoff, and, Elisabeth Wehling, The Little Blue Book : the essential guide to thinking and talking democratic, 2012
Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong, Tools of the mind, 1996 [ ]
p.96
Public speech, the term used for language directed at others, has a social, communicative function.
p.96
Private speech describes self-directed speech that is audible but not intended for others. This type of speech has a self-regulatory function.
p.98
Private Speech
Private speech is audible but directed to the self rather than to other people. It contains information as well as self-regulatory comments. It is the kind of thing that grown-ups do when faced with a difficult multistep task.
p.97
Vygotsky believed that there is a time in infancy and toddlerhood when thinking proceeds without language and language is used only for communication. Other psychologists, such as Piaget (1923/1926, 1952) and Bruner (1968), seem to concur that children go through a stage in which language is not essential to thinking or problem solving. Children solve problems with sensorimotor actions or by manipulating images rather than concepts or words. Language at this stage communicates wants and needs to others.
p.97
Then, between 2 to 3 years of age thinking and speech merge. From this point on, so Vygotsky believed, neither speech nor thinking would ever be the same.
p.97
Speech is then employed for purpose other than communication.
pp.97-98
After studying children using speech to solve problems, Vygotsky and Luria (1984/1994) drew this conclusion:
1. A child's speech is an inalienable and internally necessary part of the operation [of problem solving], its role being important as that of action in the attaining of a goal. The experimenter's impression is that the child not only speaks about what he is doing, but that for him speech and action are in this case one and the same complex psychological function [italic] directed toward the solution of the given problem.
2. The more complex the action demanded by the situation and the less directed its solution, the greater the importance played by speech in the operation as a whole. Sometimes speech becomes of such vital importance that without it the child proves to be positively unable to accomplish the given task. (p. 109)
To put this into simpler language, children become capable of thinking as they talk. The child can think aloud.
p.98
Have you ever found yourself understanding your own thinking better when you talk it out with someone else? We may even say, “Can I talk to you about this so I can clarify what I think?”
p.98
Thinking while talking makes shared activity doubly powerful. When children talk to each other as they work, their language supports learning, but the verbal interaction also helps each child to think while talking.
p.98
Private speech is audible but directed to the self rather than to other people. It contains information as well as self-regulatory comments. It is the kind of thing that grown-ups do when faced with a difficult multistep task.
p.98
Private speech is often abbreviated and condensed, unlike public speech, which communicates with others. Private speech sounds egocentric, as if the child doesn't care if she is understood by anyone else. Vygotsky points out that this egocentrism is not a deficiency of speech but an indicator of another function of speech at this age. It is not necessary for private speech to be completely explicit since it must only be intelligible to the child. The child has an intuitive sense of internal audience.
p.99
In a series of experiments, Luria found that general directions, such as “Squeeze two times”, did not have an effect on the behavior of young children 3 to 3 1/2 years of age. Children would squeeze any number of times. However, when children were taught to say “Squeeze, squeeze” and this private speech was directly paired with action, the private speech helped the children to control their behavior.
p.99
Here is another example. Mr. Smith raises his hand and say, “When I lower my hand, you jump.” All of the preschool children start jumping up and down even before he gets his hand ready. The result is different, however, when Mr. Smith says, “Let's say, all together, ‘One, two, three, jump,’ and we'll jump on ‘jump’.” The class says the four words together, and they all jump only on the word “jump”. Repeating the words rhythmically helps children to inhibit jumping at the wrong time.
(Bodrova, Elena, Tools of the mind : the Vygotskian approach to early childhood education / Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong. -- 1st ed., 1. early childhood education--philosophy., 2. child development., 3. constructivism (education)., 4. learning, psychology of., 5. play., 6. early childhood education--activity programs., 7. vygotskii, L. S. (Lev Semenovich), 1896-1934., 1996, )
<-------------------------------------------------------------------------->
No comments:
Post a Comment